Weather front

Cold fronts and generally move from west to east, while warm fronts move. Because of the greater density of air in their wake, cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions. and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts. When a front becomes and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes, the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity, known as a shearline. This is most common over the open ocean.

A weather front is a boundary separating two of different and is the principal cause of. In fronts are depicted using various colored lines and symbols, depending on the type of front. The air masses separated by a front usually differ in and Cold fronts may feature narrow bands and may on occasion be preceded by or are usually preceded by and The weather usually clears quickly after a front's passage. Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness, although there is invariably a wind shift

Pressure release

When erosion removes the overlying rock material, these intrusive rocks are exposed and the pressure on them is released. The outer parts of the rocks then tend to expand. The expansion sets up stresses which cause fractures parallel to the rock surface to form. Over time, sheets of rock break away from the exposed rocks along the fractures. Pressure release is also known as "exfoliation" or "sheeting"; these processes result in and granite domes, an example of which is Dartmoor.

In pressure release, also known as unloading, overlying materials (not necessarily rocks) are removed (by erosion, or other processes), which causes underlying rocks to expand and fracture parallel to the surface. Often the overlying material is heavy, and the underlying rocks experience high pressure under them, for example, a moving Pressure release may also cause to occur.

Chemical weathering

New or secondary minerals develop from the original minerals of the rock. In this the processes of and are most important. The process of mountain block uplift is important in exposing new rock strata to the atmosphere and moisture, enabling important chemical weathering to occur; significant release occurs of Ca++ and other minerals into surface waters.

Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often transforming them when water interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions. Chemical weathering is a gradual and ongoing process as the mineralogy of the rock adjusts to the near surface environment.

Frost weathering

Frost weathering or cryofracturing is the collective name for several processes where ice is present. This processes include frost shattering, frost-wedging and freeze-thaw weathering. This type of weathering is common in mountain areas where the temperature is around the freezing point of water. Certain frost-susceptible soils expand or upon freezing as a result of water migrating via to gro near the freezing front. This same phenomenon occurs within pore spaces of rocks. The ice accumulations grow larger as they attract liquid water from the surrounding pores. 

The ice crystal growth weakens the rocks which, in time, break up. It is caused by the expansion of when freezes, so putting considerable stress on the walls of containment.

When water that has entered the joints freezes, the ice formed strains the walls of the joints and causes the joints to deepen and widen. When the ice thaws, water can flow further into the rock. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken the rocks which, over time, break up along the joints into angular pieces. The angular rock fragments gather at the foot of the slope to form a slope (or slope). The splitting of rocks along the joints into blocks is called block disintegration. The blocks of rocks that are detached are of various shapes depending on rock structure.

Physical weathering

The primary process in physical weathering is (the process by which clasts and other particles are reduced in size). However, chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand. For example, cracks exploited by physical weathering will increase the surface area exposed to chemical action. Furthermore, the chemical action at minerals in cracks can aid the disintegration process.

Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism in where there is a large temperature range, hot in the day and cold at night. The repeated heating and cooling exerts on the outer layers of rocks, which can cause their outer layers to peel off in thin sheets. Although temperature changes are the principal driver, moisture can enhance in rock. and range fires are also known to cause significant weathering of and boulders exposed along the ground surface. Intense, localized heat can rapidly expand a boulder.

Positive and negative feedbacks in glacial periods

This low precipitation allows high-latitude snowfalls to melt during the summer. An ice-free Arctic Oceanand more southerly latitudes, reducing the temperatures over land by increased albedo as noted above. Furthermore, under this hypothesis the lack of oceanic pack ice allows increased exchange of waters between the Arctic and the North Atlantic Oceans, warming the Arctic and cooling the North Atlantic. (Current projected consequences of include a largely ice-free Arctic Ocean within 5–20 years, see Additional fresh water flowing into the North Atlantic during a warming cycle may also reduce the (see Such a reduction (by reducing the effects of the would have a cooling effect on northern Europe, which in turn would lead to increased low-latitude snow retention during the summer absorbs solar radiation during the long summer days, and evaporates more water into the Arctic atmosphere. With higher precipitation, portions of this snow may not melt during the summer and so glacial ice can form at lower altitudes

Ice and snow increase the Earth's i.e. they make it reflect more of the sun's energy and absorb less. Hence, when the air temperature decreases, ice and snow fields grow, and this continues until competition with a negative feedback mechanism forces the system to an equilibrium. Also, the reduction in caused by the ice's expansion increases albedo.

Glacials and interglacials

Glacials are characterized by cooler and drier climates over most of the Earth and large land and sea ice masses extending outward from the poles. glaciers in otherwise unglaciated areas extend to lower elevations due to a lower Sea levels drop due to the removal of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps.

 There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations. Since the Earth has significant continental glaciation in the Arctic and Antarctic, we are currently in a glacial minimum of a glaciation. Such a period between glacial maxima is known as an interglacial.

At a meeting of the (December 17, 2008), scientists detailed evidence in support of the controversial idea that the introduction of large-scale rice agriculture in Asia, coupled with extensive deforestation in Europe began to alter world climate by pumping significant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere over the last 1,000 years. In turn, a warmer atmosphere heated the oceans making them much less efficient storehouses of carbon dioxide and reinforcing global warming, possibly forestalling the onset of a new glacial age

Major ice ages

The next well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last billion years, occurred from 850 to 630 million years ago (the period) and may have produced a in which glacial ice sheets reached the equator, possibly being ended by the accumulation of such as CO₂ produced by volcanoes. "The presence of ice on the continents and pack ice on the oceans would inhibit both and which are the two major sinks for CO₂ at presentIt has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent though this model is recent and controversial.

A minor ice age, the occurred from 460 to 430 million years ago, during the and the period. There were extensive polar at intervals from 350 to 260 million years ago in South Africa during the and Periods, associated with the Correlatives are known from Argentina, also forming in the center of the ancient supercontinent Gondwanaland.

The occurred from 360 to 260 million years ago. It is named after the glacial tills found in the Karoo region of South Africa where evidence for this ice age was first clearly identified. It is thought that this ice age was largely caused by the evolution of land plants with the onset of the period. The Earth during this time was covered with an immense degree of vegetation compared to earlier times, and this caused a long term increase in planetary oxygen levels and reduction of CO₂ levels that resulted in this ice age.

Origin of ice age theory

Independently of these debates, the Swiss civil engineer (1788–1859) in 1829, explained the dispersal of erratic boulders in the Alps, the nearby Jura Mountains and the North German Plain as being due to huge glaciers. When he read his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, most scientists remained sceptical. Finally, Venetz managed to convince his friend Jean de Charpentier. De Charpentier transformed Venetz's idea into a theory with a glaciation limited to the Alps. His thoughts resembled Wahlenberg's theory. In fact, both men shared the same volcanistic, or in de Charpentier’s case rather assumptions, about earth history. In 1834, de Charpentier presented his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. In the meantime, the German botanist (1803–1867) was studying mosses which were growing on erratic boulders in the alpine upland of Bavaria. He began to wonder where such masses of stone had come from. During the summer of 1835 he made some excursions to the Bavarian Alps. Schimper came to the conclusion that ice must have been the means of transport for the boulders in the alpine upland. In the winter of 1835 to 1836 he held some lectures in Munich. 

Schimper then assumed that there must have been global times of obliteration (“Verödungszeiten“) with a cold climate and frozen water.

Two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of to the fact that the glaciers had once extended much fartherLater similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin (1767–1858) explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further.

An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German geologist (1786–1855) in 1834. Comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland and in Such explanations could also be found in other parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist (1806–1878) visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850 the natives attributed fossil to the former action of glaciers

Consumer organization

One common means of providing consumers useful information is the independent comparative survey or test of products or services, involving different manufacturers or companies (e.g., etcetera).

Another arena where consumer organizations have operated is The needs for campaigning in this area are less easy to reconcile with their traditional methods, since the scientific, dietary or medical evidence is normally more complex than in other arenas, such as the electric safety of The current standards on in developed countries, have in part been shaped by past lobbying by consumer groups.

The aim of consumer organizations may be to establish and to attempt to enforce Effective work has also been done, however, simply by using the threat of bad publicity to keep companies' focus on the consumers' point of view.

Consumer protection

Consumer Protection laws are a form of government which aim to protect the rights of For example, a government may require businesses to disclose detailed information about products—particularly in areas where safety or public health is an issue, such as food. Consumer protection is linked to the idea of "consumer rights" (that consumers have various rights as consumers), and to the formation of which help consumers make better choices in the marketplace.

Consumer rights are the rights given to a "consumer" to protect him/her from being cheated by salesman/manufacturer. Consumer protection laws are designed to ensure fair trade competition and the free flow of truthful information in the marketplace. The laws are designed to prevent businesses that engage in fraud or specified unfair practices from gaining an advantage over competitors and may provide additional protection for the weak and those unable to take care of themselves.

Consumer interests can also be protected by promoting competition in the markets which directly and indirectly serve consumers, consistent with economic efficiency, but this topic is treated in compition law.

Legislation

The non EU members of the EEA (Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway) have agreed to enact similar to that passed in the EU in the areas of, and These are some of the areas covered by the (the "first pillar" of the

The non-EU members of the EEA have no representation in such as the or This situation has been described as a “fax democracy”, with Norway waiting for their latest legislation to be from the Commission.

A Joint Committee consisting of the EEA-EFTA States plus the (representing the EU) has the function of extending to the non EU members. An EEA Council meets twice yearly to govern the overall relationship between the EEA members.

Rather than setting up pan-EEA institutions, the activities of the EEA are regulated by the and the which parallel the work of the EU's and. See for further information.

European Economic Area

The European Economic Area (EEA) was established on 1 January 1994 following an agreement between the member states of the (EFTA) and the later the (EU). Specifically, it allows and to participate in the without a conventional In exchange, they are obliged to adopt all EU legislation related to the single market, except those pieces of legislation that relate to agriculture and fisheries. Switzerland is instead linked to the EU by a series of On 1 January 1995, three erstwhile members of EFTA—and—acceded to the which superseded the European Community upon the entry into force of the on 1 November 1993. Liechtenstein's participation in the EEA was delayed until 1 May 1995.

At present, the contracting parties to the EEA Agreement are the EU and its 27 members plus and and could join the EEA immediately, due to fewer obstacles than full EU membership

World Meteorological Organization

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is an with a membership of 189 Member States and Territories. It originated from the (IMO), which was founded in 1873. Established in 1950, WMO became the specialised agency of the for (and operational and related It has its headquarters in. The current president i and the current Secretary-General is Michel Jarraud.

In June 1977, in response to press reports predicting an event similar to the the World Meteorological Organization issued the following statement: "Since the climate has been so continuously variable due to natural causes in the past, it must be assumed that it will continue to vary."

Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is the term referring to generated by the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the (CO₂) than powered energy plants. Worldwide, an installed capacity of 777 supplied 2998 TWh of hydroelectricity in 2006This was approximately 20% of the world's electricity, and accounted for about 88% of electricity from renewable sources

Effusive eruption

An effusive eruption is a characterized by the outpouring of onto the ground (as opposed to the violent fragmentation of generated by effusive eruptions vary in shape, thickness, length, and width depending on the type of lava erupted, discharge, slope of the ground over which the lava travels, and duration of eruption

For example, lava may become or lava typically forms blocky lava flows, and lava flows often form steep-sided mounds called due to their .

Geology

There are also man in Iceland, including from which the English word is derived, as well as the famous which erupts every 5–10 minutes. After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000.

With the widespread availability of and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for most residents have inexpensive hot water and home heat. The island itself is composed primarily of, a low- associated with as has occurred also in Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types^[many producing more evolved lavas such as and

A geologically young land, Iceland is located on both the and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it. This location means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes, notably and Volcanic eruptions are experienced somewhere in Iceland on an average of once every five years The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's populationthe eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months afterward

2008–2010 economic crisis

On 28 October 2008, the Icelandic government raised interest rates to 18%, (as of August 2010, it was 7%) a move which was forced in part by the terms of acquiring a loan from the. After the rate hike, trading on the Icelandic króna finally resumed on the open market, with valuation at around 250 ISK per Euro, less than one-third the value of the 1:70 exchange rate during most of 2008, and a significant drop from the 1:150 exchange ratio of the week before. Iceland has appealed to Nordic countries for an additional €4 billion in aid to avert the continuing crisis.

On 26 January 2009, the coalition government collapsed due to the public dissent over the handling of the financial crisis. A new left-wing government was formed a week later and immediately set about removing Central Bank governor Davíð Oddsson and his aides from the bank through changes in law. Oddsson was removed on 26 February 2009.

Iceland has been hit especially hard by the ongoing, because of the failure of its banking system and a subsequent economic crisis. Before the crash of the three largest banks in Iceland, and their combined debt exceeded approximately six times the nation's gross domestic product of €14 billion ($19 billion). In October 2008, the Icelandic parliament passed emergency legislation to minimise the impact of the The Financial Supervisory Authority of Iceland used permission granted by the emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three largest banks. Icelandic officials, including central bank governor stated that the state did not intend to take over any of the banks' foreign debts or assets. Instead, new banks were established around the domestic operations of the banks, and the old banks will be run into bankruptcy. The Icelandic economic crisis has been a matter of great concern in international media.

Demographics of Iceland

Most Icelandic surnames are based on or the adoption of the father's first given name, followed by "son" or "daughter". For example, Magnús and Anna, children of a man named Pétur Jónsson, would have the full name Magnús Pétursson and Anna Pétursdóttir, respectively. Magnús's daughter Sigríður Ásta would be Sigríður Ásta Magnúsdóttir, and would remain so for the rest of her life regardless of marriage. An Icelandic patronymic is essentially only a designation of fatherhood, and is therefore redundant in Icelandic social life except to differentiate people of the same first name — the phone directory, for example, lists people by their given name first, patronymic second. Thus it has little in common with traditional surnames except for its position after the given name. It is legally possible in Iceland to rework the patronymic into a replacing the father's name with the mother's. Use of the patronymic system is required by law, except for the descendants of those who had acquired family names before 1913 (about 10% of the population). One notable Icelander who has an inherited family name is star

Most are descendants of settlers and from and brought over as slaves during the age of settlement. Recent DNA analysis suggests that around 66 percent of the male settler-era population was of Norse ancestry, whereas the female population was 60 percent Celtic The Icelandic population today is remarkably homogeneous. According to Icelandic government statistics, 99% of the nation's inhabitants live in urban areas (localities with populations greater than 200) and 60% live in the Of the the is closest to the language and has remained relatively unchanged since the 12th century. Because of its small size and relative homogeneity, Iceland holds all the characteristics of a very close-knit society.

Education and science

Compulsory education, or grunnskóli, comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is conducted at the same institution. Education is mandatory by law for children aged from 6 to 16 years. The school year lasts nine months, beginning between 21 August and 1 September, ending between 31 May and 10 June. The minimum number of school days was once 170, but after a new teachers' wage contract, it increased to 180. Lessons take place five days a week. The coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks the Icelandic secondary education as the 27th in the world, significantly below the OECD average.

The is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, the playschools and the primary and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities.

Upper secondary education, or framhaldsskóli, follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known as in English. It is not compulsory, but everyone who has had a compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. All schools in Iceland are mixed sex schools. The largest seat of higher education is the which has its main campus in central Reykjavík.