ECOSYSTENS

ECOSYSTENS

A warming of even 2°C over the next 100 years would shift current climate zones in temperate regions of the world about 300 km towards higher latitudes, and vertically by 300 m. The composition and geographical distribution of unmanaged ecosystems will change as individual species respond to new conditions. At the same time, habitats will be degraded and fragmented by the combination of climate change, and other environmental pressures

During the, the global climate has warmed by about 0.6°C, or about 0.06°C per decade. which simulate the effects on climate of increasing atmospheric greenhouse gas project that global average surface will rise by a further 3°C by the end of the, or 0.3°C per decade. It is currently believed that most ecosystems can withstand at most a 0.1°C global temperature change per decade, before experiencing severe ecological stresses, leading in some cases to species extinction.



DOING OUR BIT

DOING OUR BIT

Energy used in the home can be saved by a number of measures, including draught proofing, insulation, and using energy efficient lighting and other household appliances. Although some energy-saving ideas may involve a substantial initial expense, in the long run the reduction in energy consumption saves money through reduced fuel bills. We can also help to reduce the consumption of energy used in manufacturing, by reducing the amount of waste we produce, re-using products, and recycling them where possible. By burying less waste in the ground, we can reduce the amount of nother given off by landfill sites.

Everyone contributes to global of but it is not only governments which can take action to reduce the threat of global warming. We all use energy for heating our homes, running electrical appliances, cooking food and driving our cars. Most of this energy comes from the burning of such as oil, coal and gas, which release the main greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. Despite uncertainties, the general scientific consensus is that increased levels of greenhouse gases as a result of mankind's activities are the Earth's natural and causing global warming. Energy use is responsible for about 75% of man-made carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, it is important to try to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and reduce energy consumption.



DESERTIFICATION

DESERTIFICATION

A major impact of desertification is reduced and diminished, for example, by transition from land dominated by to non-native^]. For example, in the semi-arid regions of southern California, many and ecosystems have been replaced by non-native, invasive grasses due to the shortening of fire return intervals. This can create a monoculture of that cannot support the wide range of animals once found in the original ecosystem^]. In s central highland 10% of the entire country has desertified due to agriculture by indigenous peoples^[

Desertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry areas due to various factors: including variations and human activities.

Desertification is induced by several factors, primarily anthropogenic causes, which began in the ra and continue at the highest pace today. The primary reasons for desertification are er-cultivation, increased fire frequency, of increased and global

n these marginal areas activity centres may stress the beyond its tolerance limit, resulting in degradation of the land. By pounding the soil with their hooves, ompact the substrate, increase the proportion of fine material, and reduce the rate of the soil, thus encouraging by wind and water. Grazing and collection of firewood reduce or eliminate plants that bind the soil and prevent All these come about due to the trend towards settling in one area instead of a nomadic culture



AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURE

The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into, and In the 21st century, plants have been used to grow and pharmaceuticals. Specific foods include and include cotton, wool, and include lumber and bamboo. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such as Biofuels include from and, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are some of the ornamental products

griculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties and techniques, including ways to expand the lands suitable for plant raising, by digging water-channels and other forms of irrigation. Cultivation of crops on and the herding of livestock on remain at the foundation of agriculture. In the past century there has been increasing concern to identify and quantify various forms of agriculture. In the developed world the range usually extends .

Agriculture is the production, processing, marketing, and use of foods, fibers and byproducts from plant and animals. griculture was the key development that led to the rise of, with the of and plants (i.e.) creating food that enabled the development of more and societies. The study of agriculture is known as. Agriculture is also observed in certain species of ant and termite.



CFCS

CFCS

Applications exploit the low toxicity, low reactivity, and low flammability of the CFCs and HCFCs. Every permutation of fluorine, chlorine, and hydrogen based on methane and ethane has been examined and most have been commercialized. Furthermore, many examples are known for higher numbers of carbon as well as related compounds containing bromine. Uses include, propellants in medicinal applications, and degreasing solvents.

Freon is DuPont's brand name for CFCs, HCFCs and related compounds. Other commercial names from around the world are Algofrene, Arcton, Asahiflon, Daiflon, Eskimon, FCC, Flon, Flugene, Forane, Fridohna, Frigen, Frigedohn, Genetron, Isceon, Isotron, Kaiser, Kaltron, Khladon, Ledon, Racon, and Ucon.

The physical properties of the CFCs and HCFCs are tunable by changes in the number and identity of the halogen atoms. In general they are volatile, but less so than parent alkane. The decreased volatility is attributed to the molecular polarity induced by the halides and the polarizability of halides, which induces intermolecular interactions. Thus, methane boils at -161 °C whereas the fluoromethanes boil between -51.7 (CF₂H₂) and -128 °C (CF₄). The CFCs have still higher boiling points because the chloride is even more polarizable than fluoride. Because of their polarity, the CFCs are useful solvents. The CFCs are far less flammable than methane, in part because they contain fewer C-H bonds and in part because, in the case of the chlorides and bromides, the released halides quench the free radicals that sustain flames.



British Isles

British Isles

The oldest rocks in the group are in the north west of and Ireland and are 2,700 During the period the north-western regions with the south-east, which had been part of a separate continental landmass. The topography of the islands is modest in scale by global standards. rises to an of only 1,344 metres (4,409 ft) and, which is notably larger than other lakes on the isles, covers only 381 square kilometres (147 sq mi). The climate is, with mild winters and warm wet summers. The brings significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 °C (52 °F) above the global average for the latitude. This led to a landscape which was long dominated by, although human activity has since cleared the vast majority of forest cover. The region was re-inhabited after the of, by 12,000 BC in Great Britain and 8000 BC in Ireland. At that time, Great Britain was a from which Ireland had become separated to form an island.

The British Isles are a group of off the northwest coast of that include the islands of and and over six thousand smaller islands. There are two located on the islands: the (commonly known as the United Kingdom) and also described as the Republic of Ireland) The Br, although the latter are not physically a part of the island group The term British Isles in Ireland, where there are objections to its usage due to the association of the word British with Ireland The does not use the ter and its embassy in London discourages its use As a result, Britain and Ireland is becoming a preferred description, and Atlantic Archipelago is increasingly favoured in academia, although British Isles is still commonly employed.



Aerosoles

Aerosoles

Like aerosols influence the climate. Atmospheric aerosols influence the transfer of energy in the atmosphere in two ways: directly through the scattering of sunlight; and indirectly through modifying the optical properties and lifetimes of clouds. The scattering of sunlight by aerosols is clearly demonstrated in the aftermath of a major volcanic eruption, when exceptionally colourful sunsets may be witnessed. The volcanic pollution results in a substantial reduction in the direct solar beam, largely through scattering by the highly reflective sulphuric acid aerosols. Overall, there is a net reduction of 5 to 10% in energy received at the Earth's surface. An individual eruption may cause a global cooling of up to 0.3^oC, with the effects lasting 1 to 2 years

Atmospheric aerosols are very fine particles suspended in air. They are formed by the dispersal of material at the Earth's surface (primary aerosols), or by reaction of gases in the atmosphere (secondary aerosols). They include sulphates and nitrates from the oxidation respectively of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide during the burning of fossil fuels, organic materials from the oxidation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), soot from fires, and mineral dust from wind-blown processes. Natural aerosols, which also include sea salt and volcanic dust, are probably 4 to 5 times larger than man-made ones on a global scale, but regional variations in man-made pollution may change this ratio significantly in certain areas, particularly in the industrialised Northern Hemisphere. Although making up only 1 part in a billion of the mass of the atmosphere, they have the potential to significantly influence the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, and therefore climate.



PROTECT ANTARCTIC SEA ICE

PROTECT ANTARCTIC SEA ICE

The was signed in 1959 by twelve countries; to date, forty-six countries have signed the treaty. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with various research interests.^[1]

Although myths and speculation about a ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition..

During the led by in 1907, parties led by became the first to climb and to reach the, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, went on to lead several expeditions until retiring in 1931 addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 – February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the, the first to traverse the Transantarctic Mountain Range (via), and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. An led by Norwegian polar explorer from the ship became the first to reach the geographic on 14 December 1911, using a route from the and up the One month later, the ill-fated   reached the pole.

led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive

Antarctica (pronounced)) is encapsulating the It is situated in the of the most entirely south of the, and is surrounded by the At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area after, and. About 98% of Antarctica is covered which averages at least 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) in thickness.

Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average



SOUND POLLUTION

SOUND POLLUTION

The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly and including noise, and Poor may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential area

ndoor and outdoor noise pollution sources include emergency service mechanical equipment, , compressed groundskeeping equipment, barking dogs, appliances hum, audio entertainment systems, electric and loud people

Noise pollution (or noise) is displeasing human, animal or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life. The word omes from the Latin word meaning seasickness

High noise levels can contribute to effects and exposure to moderately high levels during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in of five to ten points and an increase in and eading to the noted above as well as to increased incidence of Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by causing stress, increasing risk of death by changing the delicate balance in predator/prey detection and avoidance, and by interfering with their use of sounds in communication especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing.



OZONE

OZONE



Ozone reacts directly with some hydrocarbons such as and thus begins their removal from the air, but the products are themselves key components of. Ozone by UV light leads to production of the OH and this plays a part in the removal of hydrocarbons from the air, but is also the first step in the creation of components of smog such as which can be powerful eye irritants. The atmospheric lifetime of tropospheric ozone is about 22 days; its main removal mechanisms are being deposited to the ground, the above mentioned reaction giving OH, and by reactions with OH and the peroxy radical HO₂· (Stevenson et al., 2006).

 Ozone gas attacks any possessing olefinic or within its chain structure, such as and rubber. Products made using these polymers are especially susceptible to attack, which causes cracks to grow longer and deeper with time, the rate of crack growth depending on the load carried by the product and the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere. Such materials can be protected by adding, such as waxes, which bond to the surface to create a protective film or blend with the material and provide long term protection. used to be a serious problem in car tires for example, but the problem is now seen only in very old tires.

 On the other hand, many critical products like and may be attacked by ozone produced within compressed air systems are often made from reinforced rubber tubing and may also be susceptible to attack, especially within engine compartments where low levels of ozone are produced from electrical equipment. Storing rubber products in close proximity to can accelerate the rate at which ozone cracking occurs. The of the motor creates sparks which in turn produce ozone

GLACIERS

GLACIERS

The work was based on 2,000 aerial photos, some taken in the 1940s, and satellite images. The climate in the region has warmed by more than 4.5 degrees Fahrenheit (2.5 Celsius) in the last 50 years, the scientists said.

"The widespread retreat of the glaciers on the Antarctic Peninsula over the last 50 years was largely caused by climate change," said David Vaughan of the British Antarctic Survey in Cambridge. "Are humans responsible? We can't say for sure, but we are one step closer to answering this important question.

A new study of glaciers in a portion of the Antarctic finds 84 percent of them have retreated over the past 50 years in response to a warmer climate

The study, led by the survey's Alison Cook, is detailed in the April 22 issue of the journal Science. Among the most comprehensive surveys ever done, it looked at floating glacier-ice shelves, which are connected to the land-based glacier from which they flowed, and tidewater glaciers that rest on land and break off into the ocean when they reach the water

Glacial retreat is a complex phenomenon that often involves thinning of the glacier, too. As glaciers melt, they sometimes move toward the sea more quickly, exacerbating the melting. Where a glacier meets the sea, an ice shelf can hold it back. When those ice shelves break apart, however, a glacier can become .



INFORMATION OF GLOBAL WARMING

INFORMATION OF GLOBAL WARMING

Elevated carbon dioxide emissions from industries, factories, vehicles etc. have contributed to the greenhouse effect, causing warmer weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust and aerosols had cleared. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were severe enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian formsThe formation of the Himalayas resulted in blockage of frigid Central Asian air, preventing it from reaching India; this made its climate significantly warmer and more tropical in character than it would otherwise have been

Elevated emissions from industries, factories, vehicles etc. have contributed to the, causing that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust and aerosols had cleared. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the landmass, were severe enough to cause the extinction of many endemic

Indian forms. The formation of the Himalayas resulted in blockage of frigid Central Asian air, preventing it from reaching India; this made its climate significantly warmer and more tropical in character than it would otherwise have been. The effects of on vary from the submergence of low-lying islands and coastal lands to the melting of in the Indian Himalayas, threatening the of many of the most important rivers of In India, such effects are projected to impact millions of lives.

 As a result of ongoing the as become increasingly volatile over the past several decades; this trend is expected to continue

The first among the countries to be affected by severe climate change is Bangladesh. Its sea level, temperature and evaporation are increasing, and the changes in precipitation and cross boundary river flows are already beginning to cause drainage congestion.

 There is a reduction in fresh water availability, disturbance of morphologic processes and a higher intensity of flooding and other such disasters. Bangladesh only contributes 0.1% of the world’s emissions yet it has 2.4% of the world’s population.

In contrast, the United States makes up about 5 percent of the world's population, yet they produce approximately 25 percent of the pollution that causes global warming.

If severe climate changes occur, Bangladesh will lose land along the coast line This will be highly damaging to Bangalies especially because nearly two-thirds of Bangladeshis are employed in the agriculture sector, with rice as the single-most-important product.

 The economy has grown 5-6% over the past few years despite inefficient state-owned enterprises, delays in exploiting natural gas resources insufficient power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms. However, Bangladesh remains a poor, overpopulated, and inefficiently governed nation. f no further steps are taken to improve the current conditions global warming will affect the economy severely worsening the present issues further.^[



DEFORESTATION

DEFORESTATION

The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being. From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services

. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited greatly from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities: that the poor shouldn't have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem. Disregard or ignorance of intrinsic value, lack of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation is an ongoing issue that is causing hanges to climatic conditions, and displacement .

Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees or derived are used as, or sold, for fuel or as lumber, while cleared land is used as for livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements.
The removal of trees without sufficient has resulted in damage to loss and It has adverse impacts on of atmospheric Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse and frequently degrade into Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years. Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like in countries like and in etc. during late 19th century and the earlier half of the 20th century. By the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.



Nuclear Power

Nuclear Power

There are many different reactor designs, utilizing different fuels and coolants and incorporating different control schemes. Some of these designs have been engineered to meet a specific need. Reactors for and large naval ships, for example, commonly use as a fuel. This fuel choice increases the reactor's power density and extends the usable life of the nuclear fuel load, but is more expensive and a greater risk to nuclear proliferation than some of the other nuclear fuels.

 This can be controlled by using nd to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fissions. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if unsafe conditions are detected

 A cooling system removes heat from the reactor core and transports it to another area of the plant, where the thermal energy can be harnessed to produce electricity or to do other useful work.

 Typically the hot coolant will be used as a heat source for a and the pressurized steam from that boiler will power one or more driven Just as many conventional generate electricity by harnessing the released from burning nuclear power plants convert the energy released from the nucleus of an atom, typically via

A number of new designs for nuclear power generation, collectively known as the are the subject of active research and may be used for practical power generation in the future. Many of these new designs specifically attempt to make fission reactors cleaner, safer and/or less of a risk to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. plants (such as are available to be builtand other designs that are believed to be nearly fool-proof are being pursued., which may be viable in the future, diminish or eliminate many of the risks associated with nuclear fission.^.
One of the first organizations to develop nuclear power was the, for the purpose of propelling an. It has an unblemished record in nuclear safety, perhaps because of the stringent demands of Admiral, who was the driving force behind nuclear marine propulsion as well as the Shippingport Reactor was chief scientist at the U.S. Navy nuclear propulsion division, and was involved with the latter). The U.S. Navy has operated more nuclear reactors than any other entity, including the^] with no publicly known major incidents. The first nuclear-powered submarine,



Pollution Problems

Pollution Problems

Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution., and are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include coal-fired plants, disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), actories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides^[16]

In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists from more than 130 countries, said that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But in order to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). bout 400 million metric tons of are generated each year alone produces about 250 million metric tons. Americans constitute less than 5% of the but produce roughly 25% of the world’s and generate approximately 30% of In 2007 has overtaken the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO₂. Air pollution comes from both natural and man made sources. Though globally man made pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution equation. Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, often involve water contamination from sewage, spills from ruptured or Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal or are involved. Some sources of pollution, such as plants or can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur.

The development of nuclear science introduced which can remain lethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years, named by the as the "most polluted spot" on earth, served as a disposal site for the Soviet Union thoroughout the 1950s and 1960s. Second place may go to the area of Chelyabinsk U.S.S.R. (see reference below) as the "Most polluted place on the planet



Solar Energy

Solar Energy

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either or depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that Solar energy, radiant and rom the has been harnessed by humans since using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar along with secondary solar-powered resources such as and and account for most of the available on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used.

electrical generation relies on and Solar energy's uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through via and, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes

.To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use Earth's land surface, and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, or When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the he of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as and Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14  By green plants convert solar energy, which produces food, wood and the from which fossil fuels are derivedThe Earth receives 174  W) of incoming solar radiation) at the upper Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The of solar light at t

he Earth's surface is mostly spread across the nd ranges with a small part in the

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.





Wind Energy

Wind Energy

The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources. An estimated 72  TW) of wind power on the Earth potentially can be commercially viable, compared to about from all sources in 2005. Not all the energy of the wind flowing past a given point can be recovered.

The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun, such that the poles receive less energy from the sun than the equator; along with this, dry land heats up (and cools down) more quickly than the seas do. The differential heating drives a global system reaching from the Earth's surface to which acts as a virtual ceiling. Most of the energy stored in these wind movements can be found at high altitudes where continuous wind speeds of over 160 km/h (99 mph) occur. Eventually, the wind energy is converted through friction into diffuse heat throughout the Earth's surface and the atmosphere.

Because so much power is generated by higher wind speed, much of the energy comes in short bursts. The 2002 Lee Ranch sample is telling; alf of the energy available arrived in just 15% of the operating time.

 The consequence is that wind energy from a particular turbine or wind farm does not have as consistent an output as fuel-fired power plants; utilities that use wind power provide power from starting existing generation for times when the wind is weak thus wind power is primarily a fuel saver rather than a capacity saver. Making wind power more consistent requires that various existing technologies and methods be extended, in particular the use of stronger inter-regional transmission lines to link widely distributed wind farms. Problems of variability are addressed by The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there. To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed data. Different locations will have different wind speed distributions. The odel closely mirrors the actual distribution of hourly wind speeds at many locations. The Weibull factor is often close to 2 and therefore a can be used as a less accurate, but simpler model.



Environmental Pollution

Environmental Pollution



Air pollution has always been with us. According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, "soot found on ceilings of prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high levels of pollution that was associated with inadequate ventilation of open fires." The forging of metals appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman and Chinese metal production.

It was the that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of and other gave rise to unprecedented and the large volume of industrial discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. and were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the Department of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of and in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder

Bad bouts of local pollution helped increase consciousness. dumping in the resulted in a ban by the on consumption of its fish in 1974. Long-term contamination at starting in 1947 became a national news story in 1978 and led to the legislation of 1980. Legal proceedings in the 1990s helped bring to light releases in the champions of whose victims became famous. The pollution of industrial land gave rise to the name a term now common in was banned in most of the developed world after the publication of Rachel Carson's

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the i.e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of, such as noise, heat, or light. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as or The issues annually a list of the world's worst polluted places.

VOLCANOES

VOLCANOES

Volcanoes can be caused by. These so-called for example at can occur far from plate boundaries. Hotspot volcanoes are also found elsewhere in the especially on rocky planets and moons

Volcanoes are generally found where are or A, for example the has examples of volcanoes caused by pulling apart; the has examples of volcanoes caused by coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the (called "non-hotspot intraplate volcanism"), such as in the, the and the in North America.

A volcano is an opening, , in a planet's surface or which allows hot and gases to escape from below the surface.

are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the oceanic plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. Water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, creating This magma tends to be very e to its high ontent, so often does not reach the surface and cools at depth. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed. Typical examples for this kind of volcano are and the volcanoes in the

Other types of volcano include (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of and nd, which are formations often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of volcanoes, except when a mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.



Earth Quakes

Earth Quakes

At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacing the ground. When a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers sufficient displacement to cause a. The shaking in earthquakes can also trigger landslides and occasionally volcanic activity.

An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the that creates The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. Earthquakes are measured with a; a device which also records is known as a seismograph. The (or the related and mostly obsolete magnitude) of an earthquake is conventionally reported, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being mostly and magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified n its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event—whether a natural or an event caused by humans—that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological but also by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its or. The term efers to the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.



Protects Antarctic Sea Ice

Protects Antarctic Sea Ice

The successful establishment of SCAR and the IGY in Antarctica was due in large part to cooperation between the countries involved, and led directly to the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, which has administered Antarctic affairs since 1961 when it officially entered into force. The Antarctic Treaty, signed during mounting Cold War tensions, successfully banned all military activity, nuclear testing, and the dumping of radioactive materials on the continent. The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, also known as the Madrid Protocol, entered into force in 1998 and serves as an additional mechanism for ensuring the protection of the Antarctic environment. The Madrid Protocol goes further than the original treaty as it designates Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science and places a moratorium on mining and drilling for oil for a minimum of 50 years. The Protocol sets forth basic principles and detailed, mandatory rules which apply to all human activities in Antarctica.

Nevertheless, following the energy crisis of the 1970s, several oil companies looked to Antarctica as a possible solution to future world oil shortages by announcing plans to exploit the continent's resources. The necessary conditions for economically-sound oil production projects were beginning to ripen along with high oil prices and demand, and improved drilling technology. The prospect that Antarctica's fragile wildnerness could be tainted as a result of oil exploration and drilling activities resulted in the mobilization of several conservation groups who were intent on preserving the continent's status as the most pristine in the world.

The effects of climate change on Antarctica vary from migrations of seal and penguin populations to other parts of the continent to abrupt changes in the glacial landscape. In March, 2000 the Larson B ice shelf in northern Antarctica - an area the size of Delaware - broke away from the continent and retreated into the sea. Similarly, in January, 1995, the Larson A ice shelf calved away from the continent, disappearing into the sea and bringing with it part of an Argentine base camp. Ice shelf instability is created as a result of higher sea and air temperatures, and a number of northern ice shelves have displayed similar trends such as the Wordie, Muller and Prince Gustav Channel shelves.

Despite the 1991 Madrid Protocol's 50-year moratorium placed on the exploitation of Antarctica's natural resources, future economic and population pressures could pose significant environmental threats to the continent of Antarctica. An expected and dramatic increase in world demand for energy over the next 30 years may expose the continent to countries and markets looking for alternative petroleum supplies. If Antarctica is indeed eventually opened for oil exploration activities, which many believe it will be, the potential for oil pollution occurrences such as oil tanker spills, the dumping of waste oil, natural oil seeps and well blowouts will rise substantially.



Ethical Issue

Ethical Issue



He ontology of ethics is concerned with the idea of value-bearing properties, i.e. the kind of things or stuffs that would correspond to or be referred to by ethical propositions. Non-descriptivists and non-cognitivists will generally tend to argue that ethics do not require a specific ontology, since ethical propositions do not refer to objects in the same way that descriptive propositions do. Such a position may sometimes be called anti-realist. Realists on the other hand are left with having to explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for ethics, and why they have the normative status characteristic of ethics

At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and are no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but are interested in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in analytic philosophy and by the popularity .

he semantics of ethics divides naturally into descriptivism and non-descriptivism. Descriptivism holds that ethical language (including ethical commands and duties) is a subdivision of descriptive language and has meaning in virtue of the same kind of properties as descriptive propositions. Non-descriptivism contends that ethical propositions are irreducible in the sense that their meaning cannot be explicated sufficiently in terms of descriptive truth-conditions.

Traditionally, normative ethics (also known as moral theory) was the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions

Founded by of Cyrene, supported immediate gratification or pleasure. "Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die." Even fleeting desires should be indulged, for fear the opportunity should be forever lost. There was little to no concern with the future, the present dominating in the pursuit for immediate pleasure. Cyrenaic hedonism encouraged the pursuit of enjoyment and indulgence without hesitation, believing pleasure to be the only good.

Green effect -Green house gasses

Green effect -Green house gasses



The human interference in the atmosphere is done by a number of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), chlorofluorocarbons (CFxCLx), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and tropospheric ozone (O3). Among all these gases carbon dioxide (CO2) is of prime significance as the part played by the gas in the intensity of green house effect on our planet is almost 55 per cent. The contribution of other gases is also significant for example the chlorofluorocarbons contribute to about 25 per cent, methane to 15 per cent and nitrous oxide about 5 per cent. The extant to which ozone affects the green house effect is yet to be estimated

The strongest green house gas per molecule is artificially created chlorofluorocarbons. Their overall impact in the green house effect is less due to their low concentration in the atmosphere. Latest statistics have revealed that the concentration of such molecules will start to decline in coming future as to less emission. It is earlier reported that holes in ozone were created over the North and South Poles. In last two decades, this information played vital part in increasing awareness and many nations cutback the use of these chemicals and a general decline in global stratospheric ozone levels. The Montreal Protocol agreement was signed in 1987 by 46 nations in which an immediate timetable was proposed to reduce the production of chlorofluorocarbons and their usage.

The surface of earth turns into a radiator of energy in the infrared radiation due to its heating by the virtue of sun light. The radiation is directed to go back into the space where it is interesting to reveal that very small portion of it manages to go back. A large number of emitted back infrared radiations is absorbed by the green house gases.

The long wave energy absorbed by the atoms of the green house gases adds into the atmosphere additional energy. The radiation absorbed by the atoms is re-emitted into all directions. About 90 per cent of this energy is emitted towards the earth’s surface where it is once again absorbed. The heating of the surface once again results in the radiation which is again absorbed by the atoms of green house gases that are spread in the blanket of atmosphere and the cycle goes on until or unless no long wave radiation is available

Carbon-Negative Bioenergy

Carbon-Negative Bioenergy



While Rademakers concedes that BECS in the tropics is still a theoretical concept, he notes that projects are rapidly developing in industrial countries. Further, he says, because a number of tropical countries already have an oil and gas industry in place they would probably want to put this infrastructure to use after the oil is gone. BECS could be a way to extend the life of these expensive infrastructures after the oil and gas is depleted.
While BECS could drive large-scale conversion of forests by industrial agricultural interests, if plantations are instead established on already-cleared lands BECS could provide a means for reducing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and supplying clean energy without degrading ecosystem services or biodiversity

Not only does [BECS] deliver clean energy, it also takes CO2 out of the atmosphere -- both services that have a potential market value," Rademakers told mongabay.com. "Therefore, forest rich countries must convince the public that forests are more than carbon sinks and that biodiversity and other ecosystem services must be quantified and expressed in monetary terms as well. It will mean putting up a lot of money to compensate these countries to conserve the last remaining rainforests.

A proposed mechanism for generating carbon-negative bioenergy -- an energy source that reduces atmospheric carbon dioxide levels -- could drive large-scale deforestation in the tropics and undermine efforts to conserve forests for carbon offsets says a biofuel expert

aurens Rademakers, a natural resource management consultant and co-founder of bioenergy research group, says that the emerging concept of coupling bioenergy production with carbon capture and storage could trigger conversion of natural forests for energy crop feedstock plantations. These plantations would not only produce income from energy production but would generate carbon credits for sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide. Rademakers says that several tropical countries -- Nigeria, Gabon, both Congos, Equatorial Guinea, Angola, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Papua New Guinea, Venezuela, Ecuador -- are especially well-suited for the scheme with large offshore sequestration sites as well as conditions conducive to industrial plantations

Measures To Overcome

Measures To Overcome

In Afghanistan, hundreds of women are in prison, some for reasons that may surprise you. Many have no choice but to bring their children along. But is a prison any place to raise a child?  We learn more in this report prepared by UN Television

Ghana's Ministry of Women and Children's Affairs has been at the forefront of national efforts to overcome gender inequality. During a recent trip to the country, UN Radio's Dianne Penn sat down with Patience Opoku, Acting Director for the Department of Women, which is located in the Ministry of Women and Children's Affairs, to find out what Ghana is doing to ensure women's full participation in society

In general junk food is prone to many toxic substances that do not suit our body and the fibre content in such foods is very less. So, insulin present in the stomach is not sufficient to digest the eaten food. In addition, the presence of toxic substances leads to the development of the bacteria leading to head aches, nausea etc. The bacteria developed in the staple food reacts with the enzymes in the body, finally leading to stomach aches, vomiting etc. In some hotels and restaurants the left over food is warmed and served. One cannot know by seeing the food whether it is fresh or not. They eat it and face indigestion problems. When the indigestion problem arises as described in the above three cases bacteria is developed. In some cases it is developed within hours or sometimes even days. In scientific terms this period is known as incubation period. When that is reached people tend to vomit or suffer from stomach cramping or fever.

Stomach ache, loose stool, vomiting, headache, fever are the most common found in people suffering from  food poisoning. Food poisoning is an infection that is caused due to the development of the bacteria in stomach. It is most commonly found in people who serve their hunger by eating the junk food, staple food, food that is prepared in hotels or restaurants, eating envy, poultry, milk and such dairy products etc.

He highlighted that in order to strengthen the economy and enhance the exports, it is mandatory to provide the electricity and gas to the textile units on priority basis across the board so that the millions of labourers associated with textile sector shall earn and run their kitchen accordingly.

He pointed out that the power generation plant imported from Abu Dhabi to be installed at Faisalabad should be in adequate condition. The government should ensure its proper condition accordingly.

He requested the government that the consensus should be developed between provinces over the construction of Kala Bagh Dam Project.

In order to overcome the energy crisis, the government should motivate the private sector’s participation in Hydle Power project on Public Private Partnership basis.



How To Stop Global Warming

How To Stop Global Warming

Delegates in Nagoya plan to set a new target for 2020 for curbing species loss, and will discuss boosting medium-term financial help for poor countries to help them protect their wildlife and habitats. But similar pledges to stem biodiversity loss, first made when the U.N. biodiversity convention was adopted in 1992, have not been fulfilled. At the start of the decade, U.N. members pledged under the Millennium Development Goals to achieve “a significant reduction” in the rate of wildlife loss by 2010, the International Year of Biodiversity. Instead, habitat destruction has continued unabated, and some experts now warn that the planet faces its sixth mass extinction phase — the latest since dinosaurs vanished 65 million years ago

The savings from a coordinated ecosystems approach to climate change, biodiversity loss, avoiding deforestation and land degradation are incalculable”.

The 12-day conference aims to throw a spotlight on a global environmental issue that has drawn less attention in recent years than the related problem of manmade climate change, blamed on a surge of greenhouse gas emissions.

Scientists say worldwide human population pressures are wiping out ecosystems such as tropical forests and coral reefs, killing off animal andplant species that form the web of life which humanity depends on. “Our prosperity and indeed our survival depend on healthy ecosystems,” said Jim Leape, the chief of the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). “The Earth's forests, oceans and rivers are the very foundation of our society and economy”.

“Even in purely economic terms, it is far, far more cost effective to conserve or restore healthy ecosystems than to artificially provide natural services that we currently take for granted”.

The world must act immediately to stop the rapid loss of animal and plant species and the habitats they live in, the United Nations warned on Monday at the start of a major summit on biodiversity.

The 193 members of the U.N.'s Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) began gathering in the central city of Nagoya in Japan to try to work out strategies to heal.



Difference between global warming and climate changes

Difference between global warming and climate changes



Its simplest explanation climate change is a long-term change in the average climate of the planet or a region of the planet. A key factor in this description is the use of the phrase long-term. While any area may experience seasonal or annual changes, climate change as a phenomenon refers to a long-term change. Often long-term change is measured by monitoring the changes in climate averages. Among the averages that can be significant indicators, factors in, or impacted by climate change are precipitation and temperature.

With climate any single aspect or element can influence others and any one may be directly effected or contribute to climate change. In this way the delicate and intertwined nature of the weather’s elements are evident. Climate change can be caused by natural occurrences. There is evidence that long-term cyclical climate change has already occurred and will continue to occur. Climate change can also be caused by the actions of man. Here is one connection between global warming and climate change. Global warming, as it is defined, can cause climate change. It is also notable that climate change can magnify the process and impact of global warming.

Because the effects of global warming can contribute to further warming it has the potential to create very long-term and dramatic climate change. These sorts of self-fueling phenomenon tend to continue for some time after the initial catalyst is no longer being introduced. A number of organizations have taken action to reduce the gases released by their members. These include international groups and national governments. Many agree though that more must be done if the world is to avoid a catastrophic and relatively immediate effect.

When speaking of climate change and global warming there are some significant distinctions and also a number of overlaps that are commonly accepted within the scientific community. There remains some debate about the nature of global warming and its impact on climate change, but most acknowledge that the planet has experienced, and continues to experience, climate change in both significant and minor forms.

Politics

Politics



In 2005, the oil giant opposed a shareholders' resolution to explain the science behind its denial of global warming. In recent years, other companies have increasingly come to accept global warming theory; for example, the Chairman of, declared a need for action in 2002. Lord Oxburgh, non-executive chairman of said in a speech at the 2005 "We have 45 years, and if we start now, not in 10 or 15 years' time, we have a chance of hitting those targets. But we've got to start now. We have no time to lose."^[18]

Thousands of protesters marched on the international day of action on December 3, 2005, which coincided with the first meeting of the Parties in Montreal. The planned demonstrations were endorsed by the Assembly of Movements of the The of have involved corporate lobbying, funding of special interest groups and public relations campaigns by the oil and coal industries which have affected policy decisions and legislation worldwide. In turn this has caused political debate over the science of and response to global warming.

In some countries the political right are fighting on a platform of taking tough action against global warming, while in others the political right either dispute the   or oppose action to mitigate global warming, instead favoring adaption^] All European countries have ratified the and all have supported strong reductions in greenhouse gas emissions

• Liberal Government during the 1990s had agreed to Kyoto but oversaw the increase of greenhouse gas emissions during their terms in office and did little to meet Kyoto's targets. Canada's current has claimed that, due to increased emissions since 1990, it is realistically impossible to meet their Kyoto targets and attempting to do so would be disastrous for the Canadian economy. Current Prime Minister has come under fire for being adamant in leaving Kyoto and working on a different climate plan. Consequently, this issue has become something of an or the Government in recent months. The current has been quick in their condemnation of the Government but has also been accused of using Global Warming for political purposes as seen in the naming of leader dog 'Kyoto'.

•  However, the first politician putting Global Warming on the political agenda was 1969 Nixon wanted environmental topics (as acid rain and greenhouse effect) to be treated by a third and civil pillar of NATO. The reaction of the NATO allies was lukewarm but the initiative gained impact in the civil field.^[2]

Mitigation

Mitigation



Emissions result from based electricity generation. Currently governments subsidize by $557 billion per year. However, in some countries, government action has boosted the development of renewable energy technologies—for example, a program to put on the roofs of a million homes has made a world leader in that technology, and s support for ensured its former leadership of that sector. In 2005, Governor promised an initiative to install a, which became the Most forms of renewable energy generate no appreciable amounts of greenhouse gases except for derived from

In June 2005, the of allegedly became the first head of a British company to admit that climate change is already affecting his company, and affecting its business, and announced planso source much of its substantial energy use from renewable sources. He noted that, "Since the beginning of the year, the media has been showing us images of Greenland glaciers crashing into the sea, Mount Kilimanjaro devoid of its ice cap and Scotland reeling from floods and gales. All down to natural weather cycles? I think not." Current uranium production is expected to be adequate at current consumption rates for about a century (from see also There are a number of alternative nuclear fission technologies, such as (see which could vastly extend fuel supplies if successfully developed and utilized. Lower-risk cycles have been demonstrated in the past.

One means of reducing carbon emissions is the of such as. Scientists have advanced a plan to power 100% of the world's energy with, and by the year 2030, recommending renewable energy subsidies and a price on carbon reflecting its cost for flood and related expenses

Current uranium production is expected to be adequate at current consumption rates for about a century (from, see also There are a number of alternative nuclear fission technologies, such as (see which could vastly extend fuel supplies if successfully developed and utilized. Lower-risk cycles have been demonstrated in the past.

A study performed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Gas Research Institute (GRI) in 1997 sought to discover whether the reduction in carbon dioxide emissions from increased natural gas (predominantly methane) use would be offset by a possible increased level of methane emissions from sources such as leaks and emissions. The study concluded that the reduction in emissions from increased natural gas use strongly outweighs the detrimental effects of increased methane emissions. Thus the increased use of natural gas in the place of other, dirtier fossil fuels can serve to lessen the emission of greenhouse gases in the United States.

Penguins For Global Warming

Penguins For Global Warming

In 2004, Antarctica's McMurdo Sound was blocked by the mountainous remnant of the world's largest iceberg. The iceberg cut off supply routes for several research bases on the sound and was so big that it blocked wind and water currents that would normally break up the ice in the sound and make access to the sea much easier for researchers and penguins. As a result, tens of thousands of Adelie penguin chicks and their parents were stranded inland with a 112-mile round trip being the shortest distance to gather food

A variety of species of penguins have been declining due to the effects of global warming. Starvation, habitat loss, and the fact that the penguins' world is literally breaking up under their feet are all contributing factors to dramatic population loss

In one instance, a large number of Adelie penguins were literally made prisoners and starved because global warming had unexpectedly altered their habitat

These amazing animals can withstand some of the harshest conditions on Earth, but they cannot continue to sustain themselves without krill--a shrimplike creature that is a staple of the emperor penguin's diet. The sea ice necessary to the survival of krill larvae is disappearing earlier and taking with it 80 percent of the krill population. The emperor penguins are starving to death because the warming air and water is drastically changing the environment to which they have adapted.

The decline of the rockhopper penguin is another example of how warming temperatures are affecting these beloved birds. The number of rockhopper penguins breeding on one island has gone from 1.4 million to only 100,000 in the last 60 years--most likely due to warming waters surrounding the island



Causes Of Global Warming

Causes Of Global Warming



Different greenhouse gases have very different heat-trapping abilities. Some of them can even trap more heat than CO2. A molecule of methane produces more than 20 times the warming of a molecule of CO2. Nitrous oxide is 300 times more powerful than CO2. Other gases, such as chlorofluorocarbons (which have been banned in much of the world because they also degrade the ozone layer), have heat-trapping potential thousands of times greater than CO2. But because their concentrations are much lower than CO2, none of these gases adds as much warmth to the atmosphere as CO2 does

To bring all this information together, the United Nations formed a group of scientists called the International Panel on Climate Change, or IPCC. The IPCC meets every few years to review the latest scientific findings and write a report summarizing all that is known about global warming. Each report represents a consensus, or agreement, among hundreds of leading scientists.

One of the first things scientists learned is that there are several greenhouse gases responsible for warming, and humans emit them in a variety of ways. Most come from the combustion of fossil fuels in cars, factories and electricity production. The gas responsible for the most warming is carbon dioxide, also called CO2. Other contributors include methane released from landfills and agriculture (especially from the digestive systems of grazing animals), nitrous oxide from fertilizers, gases used for refrigeration and industrial processes, and the loss of forests that would otherwise store CO2.

In order to understand the effects of all the gases together, scientists tend to talk about all greenhouse gases in terms of the equivalent amount of CO2. Since 1990, yearly emissions have gone up by about 6 billion metric tons of "carbon dioxide equivalent" worldwide, more than a 20% increase